Behavioural effects of a delivery drone on feelings of uncertainty: A virtual reality experiment

Lingam, S. N., Petermeijer, S. M., Torre, I., Bazilinskyy, P., Ljungblad, S., Martens, M. H.

ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction (2025)

ABSTRACT The use of drones is expected to increase for delivering groceries or medical equipment to individuals. Understanding how people perceive drone behavior, specifically in terms of approach trajectories and delivery methods, and identifying factors that induce feelings of uncertainty is crucial for perceived safety and trust. This virtual reality experiment investigated the impact of drone approach trajectories and delivery methods on feelings of uncertainty. Forty-five participants observed a drone approaching in an orthogonal or a curved path and either, delivering packages by landing or using a cable while hovering above eye level. We found that participants felt uncertain and unsafe, especially when looking up at drones approaching with orthogonal paths. Curved paths led to lower feelings of uncertainty, with comments such as being more natural, trustful, and safe. Feelings of uncertainty arose while landing on the ground due to altitude changes and potential collision concerns. Using a cable instead of actually landing for delivery reduced feelings of uncertainty and increased trust. The study recommends drones avoid hovering near humans, especially after landing. Furthermore, the study suggests exploring design solutions, including design aesthetics and human-machine interfaces, that clearly convey drone intentions to help reduce feelings of uncertainty.